Greek Article & others
Author: Steve Amato
Description: Biblical Greek grammar - the article
Keywords: Bibllical greek, grammar, article

The Article

The Article
A. As a Pronoun
1. Personal Pronoun [he, she, it] 2. Relative Pronoun [who, which] 3. Possessive Pronoun [his, her]
B. With Substantives
4. Simple Identification 5. Anaphoric (Previous Reference) 6. Deictic ("Pointing" Article) 7. Par Excellence 8. Monadic ("One of a Kind" or "Unique") 9. Well-Known ("Celebrity" Article) 10. Abstract (with Abstract Nouns) 11. Generic (Categorical) [as a class]
C. As a Substantiver
D. As a Function Marker
12. To Denote Adjectival Positions 13. With Possessive Pronouns 14. In Genitive Phrases 15. With Indeclinable Nouns 16. With Participles 17. With Demonstratives 18. With Nominative Nouns 19. To Distinguish Subject from Predicate Nominative and Object from Complement
E. Absence of the Article
20. Indefinite 21. Qualitative 22. Definite
Special Uses Colwell's Rule Granville Sharp Rule

Understanding the article is essential for biblical exegesis, and our summary here is especially shortened. Be sure to see Wallace's full grammar on the article, especially his discussion of "Colwell's Rule" and "Granville Sharp's Rule," and his discussion of the absense of the article. Some of the following categories overlap.

### A. As a Pronoun ([partially] Independent Use)

The article is not a true pronoun in Koine Greek, even though it derived from the demonstrative. But in many instances it can function semantically in the place of a pronoun.

1. Personal Pronoun [he, she, it]

The article is often used in the place of a third person personal pronoun in the nominative case. It is only used in this way with the men...de construction or with de alone (Thus, o men ... o de or simply o de)

John 4:32 o de eipen autoiV

But he said to them

2. Relative Pronoun [who, which]

Sometimes the article is equivalent to a relative pronoun in force. This is especially true when it is repeated after a noun before a phrase (e.g., a gen. phrase).

1Cor 1:18 o logoV gar o tou staurou

the word that is of the cross

Luke 7:32 omoioi eisin paidioiV toiV en agora kaqhmenoiV/DT>

They are like children who [are] sitting in the marketplace.

3. Possessive Pronoun [his, her]

The article is sometimes used in contexts in which possession is implied. The article itself does not involve possession, but this notion can be inferred from the presence of the article alone in certain contexts.

Eph 5:25 oi andreV agapate taV gunaikaV

Husbands, love your wives.

### B. With Substantives (Dependent or Modifying Use)

[Wallace classifies all of the following categories except the last as subcategories of the "individualizing article."] The individualizing article particularizes, distinguishing otherwise similar objects; the generic (or categorical) article is used to distinguish one category of individuals from another.

4. Simple Identification

The article is frequently used to distinguish one individual from another.

Luke 4:20 kai ptuxaV to biblion apodouV tw uphreth ekaqisen

He closed the book and gave it back to the attendant and sat down

5. Anaphoric (Previous Reference)

The anaphoric article is the article denoting previous reference. The first mention of the substantive is usually anarthrous because it is merely being introduced. But subsequent mentions of it use the article, for the article is now pointing back to the substantive previously mentioned.

John 4:40,43 emeinen ekei duo hmeraV...meta de taV duo hmeraV

He stayed there two days ... after the two days ...

2Tim 4:2 khruxon ton logon

Preach the word! (see 2Tim 3:16)

6. Deitic ("Pointing" Article)

The article is occasionally used to point out an object or person which/who is present at the moment of speaking. It typically has a demonstrative force.

Matt 14:15 proshlqon autw oi maqhtai autou legonteV erhmoV estin o topoV

The disciples came to him, saying, "This place is deserted."

7. Par Excellence

The article is frequently used to point out a substantive that is, in a sense, "in a class by itself." It is the only one deserving of the name. For example, if in late January someone were to say to you, "Did you see the game?" you might reply, "Which game?" They might then reply, "The game! The only game worth watching! The BIG game! You know, the Super Bowl!" This is the article used in a par excellence way.

John 1:21 o profhthV ei su

Are you the prophet?

8. Monadic ("One of a Kind" or "Unique" Article)

The article is frequently used to identify monadic or one-of-a-kind nouns, such as "the devil," "the sun," "the Christ."

John 1:29 ide o amnoV tou qeou o airwn thn amartian tou kosmou

Behold the lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world!

9. Well-Kown ("Celebrity" Article)

The article points out an object that is well known, but for reasons other than the above categories (i.e., not anaphoric, deitic, par excellence, or monadic). This it refers to a well-known object that has not been mentioned in the preceding context (anaphoric), nor is considered to be the best of its class (par excellence), nor is one of a kind (monadic).

Jas 1:1 taiV dwdeka fulaiV taiV en th diaspora

to the twelve tribes that are in the dispersion

10. Abstract (the Article with Abstract Nouns)

Abstract nouns by their very nature focus on a quality. However, when such a noun is articular, that quality is "tightened up," as it were, defined more closely, distinguished from other notions.

Matt 7:23 oi ergazomenoi thn anomian

the workers of lawlessness

John 4:22 h swthria ek twn ioudaiwn estin

Salvation is from the Jews

11. Generic (Categorical) Article [as a class]

While the individualizing article distinguishes or identifies a particular object belonging to a larger calss, the generic article distinguishes one class from another. This is somewhat less frequent than the individualizing article (though it still occurs hundreds of times in the NT). It categorizes rather than particularizes.

Matt 18:17 estw soi wsper o eqnikoV kai o telwnhV

Let him be [with reference] to you as the Gentiles [as a class] and the tax-collector [as a class].

### C. As a Substantiver

The article can turn almost any part of speech into a noun: adverbs, adjectives, prepositional phrases, particles, infinitives, participles, and even finite verbs. As well, the article can turn a phrase into a nominal entity. This incredible flexibility is part of the genius of the Greek article.

Matt 8:28 elqonti autw eiV to peran

when he came to the other side

Matt 5:5 makarioi oi praeiV oti autoi klhronomhsousin thn ghn

Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth

Luke 7:19 su ei o ercomenoV

Are you the one who is to come?

Mark 10:40 to de kaqisai ek dexiwn mou kai ex euwnumwn mou ouk estin emon dounai

but to sit at my right hand or my left is not mine to give

Matt 10:3 iakwboV o tou alfaiou

James, the [son] of Alphaeus

Acts 11:2 oi ek peritomhV

those of the circumcision [party]

1Cor 14:16 pwV erei to amhn

How will he say the "Amen"?

### D. As a Function Marker

When the article is used as a grammatical function marker, it may or may not also bear a semantic force. But even when it does bear such a force, the grammatical (structural) use is usually prominent.

12. To Denote Adjectival Positions

Especially when the article is used to denote the second attributive position would we say that it has almost not semantic meaning.

Mark 8:38 elqh en th doxh tou patroV autou meta twn aggelwn twn agiwn

whenever he comes in his Father's glory with the holy angels.

13. With Possessive Pronouns

Almost invariably the article is used when a possessive pronoun is attached to the noun.

Mark 1:41 sekteinaV thn ceira hyato

stretching out his hand

14. In Genitive Phrases

In genitive phrases both the head noun and the genitive noun normally have or lack the article ("Apollonius' canon").

Mark 1:15 hggiken h basileia tou qeou

The kingdom of God is near.

15. With Indeclinable Nouns

The article is used with indeclinable nouns to show the case of the noun.

Luke 1:68 euloghtoV kurioV o qeoV tou israhl

Blessed is the Lord God of Israel.

16. With Participles

The article before the participles functions both as a substantiver and as a function marker. The presence of the article indicates a substatival (or adjectival) function for the participle. Of course, the participle can also often be substantival or adjectival without the article, though there is the greater possibility of ambiguity in such instances.

Luke 6:21 makarioi oi peinwnteV nun

Blessed are those who weep now.

17. With Demonstratives

The article is used with the demonstratives in predicate position to indicate attributive function.

Matt 16:18 epi tauth th petra oikodomhsw mou thn ekklhsian

On this rock I will build my church.

18. With Nominative Nouns

Normally a subject will have the article (unless it is a pronoun or proper noun).

Luke 11:7 h qura kekleistai

The door is shut.

19. To Distinguish Subject from Predicate Nominative and Object from Complement

Generally speaking, the subject will be distinguished from the predicate nominative by having the article.

Matt 12:8 kurioV gar estin kai tou sabbatou o uioV tou anqrwpou

The Son of Man is lord of the Sabbath.

E. Absence of the Article

It is not necessary for a noun to have the article in order for it to be definite. But conversely, a noun cannot be indefinite when it has the article. Thus it may be definite without the article, and it must be definite with the article. When a substantive is anarthrous, it may have one of three forces: indefinite, qualitative, or definite. [Be sure to read Wallace on the significance of the absence of the article and study his many exegetically significant examples. The following is significantly shortened.]

20. Indefinite

An indefinite noun refers to one member of a class, without specifying which member. For example, in John 4:7 we have "A woman from Samaria." The anarthrous gune is indefinite, telling us nothing about this particular woman.

21. Qualitative

A qualitative noun places the stress on quality, nature, or essence. It does not merely indicate membership in a class of which there are other members (such as an indefinite noun), nor does it stress individual identity (such as a definite noun). It is akin to a generic noun in that it focuses on the kind. Further, like a generic, it emphasizes class traits. Yet, unlike generic nouns, a qualitative noun often has in view one individual rather than the class as a whole.

1John 4:8 o qeoV agaph estin

God is love

22. Definite

A definite noun lays the stress on individual identity. It has in view membership in a class, but this particular member is already marked out by the author. [Wallace lists many examples.]

Luke 5:8 Simwn PetroV prosepesen toiV gonasin Ihsou

Simon Peter fell at the feet of Jesus.

## Special Uses and Non-Uses of the Article

A. Anarthrous Pre-Verbal Predicate Nominatives (Involving Colwell's Rule)

1. Statement of the Rule: a definite nominative that precedes the verb is usually anarthrous.

2. Clarification of the Rule: the converse is not true; anarthrous preverbal PNs are usually qualitative. theos in John 1:1c is probably qualitative (thus, not identifying the logos with the person of o theos, but stressing that their natures are the same: "What God was, the Word was" [NEB]).

B. The Article with Multiple Substantives Connected by Kai (Granville Sharp Rule and Related Constructions)

1. Statement of the Granville Sharp Rule: both substantives (nouns, particples, adjectives) refer to the same person in the article-substantive-kai-substantive (TSKS) construction when:

- both are personal
- both are singular
- both are non-proper (i.e., common terms, not proper names)

Example: Eph 1:3 o qeoV kai pathr

2. Validity of the Rule Within the New Testament: always valid; Titus 2:13 & 2Pet 1:1 impacted. Exceptions outside the NT are capable of linguistic explanation and do not affect the christologically significant texts.

3. TSKS Constructions Involving Impersonal, Plural, and Proper Nouns

a. Proper Names: always distinct individuals (e.g., "the Peter and James")

b. Plural Personal Constructions: three different sematic groups possible: (1) distinct, (2) identical, (3) overlap (three subgroups). This breaks down:

- participle + participle = identical
- noun + noun = distinct or overlap (affects Eph 2:20; 4:11)
- adjective + adjective = identical or overlap
- mixed constructions: mixed semantic values

c. Impersonal Constructions: three different semantic groups possible: (1) distinct, (2) identical, (3) overlap (three subgroups). All are represented, though #2 (identical) is rare. Affects Acts 2:23; 20:21; 2Thess 2:1; etc.

# Adjectives

## "Non-Adjectival" Uses of the Adjective

The Adverbial Use of the Adjective

Usually reserved for special terms

The Independent or Substantival Use of the Adjective

Usually articular

## The Use of the Positive, Comparative,
and Superlative Forms of the Adjective

A. The Use of the Positive Adjective

1. Normal Usage: only one object in view
2. Positive for Comparative: implicit comparison between two substantives
3. Positive for Superlative: implicit comparison between three or more substantives

B. The Use of the Comparative Adjective

1. Normal Usage: explicit comparison between two; adjective usually followed by genitive or h
2. Comparative for Superlative: comparison of three or more
3. Comparison for Elative: very + positive form of adjective; no comparison is made (thus, isxupoteros would be very strong rather than stronger)

C. The Use of the Superative Adjective

1. "Normal" Usage: the extreme in a comparison of three or more
2. Superlative for Elaitve: very + positive form of the adjective
3. Superlative for Comparative: only two are compared; frequent with prwtos, rare with other terms

## The Relation of Adjective to Noun

A. When the Article is Present

1. The Attributive Positions: adjective modifies the noun

a. First Attributive: article-adjective-noun
b. Second Attributive: article-noun-article-adjective
c. Third Attributive: noun article adjective

2. The Predicate Positions: adjective makes assertion about the noun

a. First Predicate: adjective-article-noun
b. Second Predicate: article-noun-adjective

B. When the Article Is Absent

1. The Anarthrous Adjective-Noun Construction: usually attributive, sometimes predicate
2. The Anarthrous Noun-Adjective Construction: usually attributive, sometimes predicate

# Pronouns

## Semantic Categories: Major Classes

A. Personal Pronouns: egw, su, autoV

1. Nominative Uses

a. Emphasis

1) Contrast: kind (antithetical) or degree (comparison)
2) Subject Focus: to identify, give prominence to, clarify, etc.; contrasts not prominent, though sometimes present

b. Redundancy: sometimes as a "switch-reference" device, to show alternating subjects; other times, merely stylistic.

2. Oblique Cases

a. Normal Use: Anaphoric: to stand in the place of a noun or other nominal
b. Possessive: genitive of the personal pronoun
c. Reflexive: himself, herself, itself

B. Demonstrative Pronouns: pointers - outoV, ekeinoV, ode

1. Regular Uses (as Demonstratives)

a. outoV (Proximity): this
b. ekeinoV (Remoteness): that
c. ode (anticipatory/proleptic): the following

2. For Personal Pronouns: outos and ekeinos sometimes have diminished demonstrative force; equivalent to third person personal pronouns
3. Unusual Uses (from an English perspective)

a. Pleonastic (Redundant, Resumptive): unnecessary use, sometimes for rhetorical effect
b. Constructio ad 'Sensum (construction according to sense): natural gender or number is used instead of grammatical gender or number (as in ta eiqnh ... outoi ["the Gentiles ... these"])

1) Gender: lack of concord in gender between pronoun and antecedent
2) Number: lack of concord in number between pronoun and antecedent

c. Conceptual Antecedent or Postcedent: neuter of outos routinely used to refer to a phrase or clause

C. Relative Pronouns: oV and ostiV labeled relative pronouns because they relate to more than one clause

1. oV

a. Regular Use: link a substantive to the relative clause, which either describes, clarifies, or restricts the meaning of the substantive
b. "Unusual" Uses: "glitch" in concord, identification of antecedent, etc.

1) Natural Gender vs. Grammatical Gender (constructio ad sensum)
2) Case

a) Attraction (a.k.a. Direct Attraction): attracted to the case of the antecedent
b) Inverse Attraction (a.k.a. Indirect Attraction): antecedent attracted to the case of the RP

3) Antecedent Complexities

a) Omission of Antecedent: due to embedded demonstrative or poetry
b) Adverbial/Conjunctive Uses: after a preposition; adverbial/conjunctive force; no antecedent, or antecedent is conceptual

2. ostiV (called Indefinite; beter: Generic or Qualitative)

a. Generic: focuses on the whole class (thus, whoever = everyone who)
b. Qualitative: focuses on the nature or essence of the person or thing in view (the very one who, who certainty, who indeed)
c. Confusion with oV: functions like a definite RP

D. Interrogative Pronouns ask a question: tiV & ti, poioV, posoV

1. tiV & ti: asks identifying question (Who? What?) in direct and indirect questions. Sometimes tis asks What sort? (qualitative), and ti asks Why? (adverbial).
2. poioV & posoV: asks qualitative (What sort?) and quantitative question (How much?), respectively.

E. Indefinite Pronouns: introduces a member of a class without further identification (tis, ti)

1. Substantival: anyone, someone, a certain
2. Adjectival: a(n)

F. Possessive Pronouns (Adjectives): no distinct form a Greek, but:

1. Possessive Adjective (emoV, soV, hmeteroV, umeteroV ) lexicalizes possession
2. Personal Pronoun in Genitive (autou ) grammaticalizes possession

G. Intensive Pronoun: autoV

1. As an Intensive Pronoun: himself, herself, itself (in predicate position to an articular noun)
2. As an Identifying Adjective: same (modifying an articular substantive in the attributive position)
3. As a Third Person Personal Pronoun: he, she, it

H. Reflexive Pronouns: enautou (of myself), seautou (of yourself), eautou (of himself), eautwn (of themselves); used to highlight the participation of the subject in the verbal action, as direct object, indirect object, intesifier, etc.

I. Reciprocal Pronouns: allhlwn (of one another) used to indicate an interchange between two or more groups; thus, always plural.

## Lexico-Syntatic Categories: Major Terms

allhlwn autoV eautou egw ekeinoV emautou hmeiV ode oV ostiV outoV poioV posoV seautou su tiV tiV umeiV | reciprocal personal reflexive personal demonstrative reflexive personal demonstrative relative relative demonstrative interrogative interrogative reflexive personal interrogative indefinite personal | . possessive (gen.), intensive . possessive (gen.) personal . possessive (gen) . (definite) (indefinite) personal (qualitative) (quantitative) . possessive (gen.) . . possessive (gen.)

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